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| 数学分析:实数理论 [2026/01/08 13:18] – [2 实数理论] 张叶安 | 数学分析:实数理论 [2026/02/18 19:40] (当前版本) – 移除 张叶安 | ||
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| - | ====== 2 实数理论 ====== | ||
| - | 本章节基于 戴德金分划理论 建立严格的实数系统,定义了序关系与四则运算,并在此基础上重新阐述了初等函数的定义与性质。 | ||
| - | |||
| - | ===== 2.1 实数及其顺序 ===== | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 1. Dedekind 分划与无理数定义 ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | **分划定义的引入:** | ||
| - | 设 $A, B$ 是两个数集,约定: | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | A < B \Leftrightarrow \forall a \in A, \forall b \in B, \text{有 } a < b \\ | ||
| - | A \leqslant B \Leftrightarrow \forall a \in A, \forall b \in B, \text{有 } a \leqslant b | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{1} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | 若有理数集 $\mathbb{Q}$ 的两个子集 $A, A'$ 满足: | ||
| - | - (i) $A \neq \emptyset, A' \neq \emptyset$ 且 $\mathbb{Q} = A \cup A'$ | ||
| - | - (ii) $A < A'$ | ||
| - | 则称 $A \mid A'$ 是 $\mathbb{Q}$ 的一个**分划**。 | ||
| - | |||
| - | **实数的定义:** | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 2. 序关系 ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | 设 $\alpha = A \mid A', \beta = B \mid B'$: | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | |||
| - | **连续性定理 (Dedekind):** | ||
| - | $\mathbb{R}$ 的任一分划 $A \mid A'$ 均有一界数 $\beta$($\beta$ 为 $A$ 的最大数或 $A'$ 的最小数)。这体现了实数系的完备性。 | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 3. 确界与广义实数 ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | **定义:** | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | |||
| - | **确界定理 (2.1.6):** | ||
| - | $\mathbb{R}$ 中任何非空子集 $A$ 在 $\overline{\mathbb{R}}$ 中必有上确界和下确界。 | ||
| - | |||
| - | **确界的性质与公式:** | ||
| - | $$ -\infty \leqslant \inf A \leqslant \sup A \leqslant \infty \tag{2} $$ | ||
| - | $$ A \leqslant B \Rightarrow \sup A \leqslant \inf B \tag{3} $$ | ||
| - | $$ A \subset B \Rightarrow \inf A \geqslant \inf B, \quad \sup A \leqslant \sup B \tag{4} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | **确界的充要条件:** | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | M = \sup A \Leftrightarrow A \leqslant M \text{ 且 } \forall b \in (-\infty, M), \exists a \in A \cap (b, M] \\ | ||
| - | m = \inf A \Leftrightarrow A \geqslant m \text{ 且 } \forall b \in (m, \infty), \exists a \in A \cap [m, b) | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{5a} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | **二元集记号:** | ||
| - | $$ a \vee b = \max \{a, b\}, \quad a \wedge b = \min \{a, b\} \tag{6} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | ===== 2.2 有理运算 ===== | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 1. 加法与乘法定义 ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | 利用有理数逼近定义实数运算: | ||
| - | **加法:** | ||
| - | |||
| - | $$ \alpha + \beta = \sup \{a + b : a, b \in \mathbb{Q}, a < \alpha, b < \beta\} \tag{7} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | **乘法 (针对正数):** | ||
| - | |||
| - | $$ \alpha \beta = \sup \{ab : a, b \in \mathbb{Q}, 0 < a < \alpha, 0 < b < \beta\} \tag{8} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | *(其他情况通过符号法则定义)* | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 2. 绝对值与不等式 ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | **定义:** | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |\alpha| = \begin{cases} \alpha & (\alpha \geqslant 0) \\ -\alpha & (\alpha < 0) \end{cases} \tag{9} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | **重要不等式:** | ||
| - | $$ \big| |\alpha| - |\beta| \big| \leqslant |\alpha - \beta| \tag{10} $$ | ||
| - | $$ \left| \sum_{i=1}^{n} \alpha_i \right| \leqslant \sum_{i=1}^{n} |\alpha_i| \tag{10} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 3. 涉及无穷的运算约定 ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | \infty + a = \infty \cdot b = \infty & (-\infty < a \leqslant \infty, b > 0) \\ | ||
| - | -\infty + a = (-\infty) \cdot b = \infty \cdot (-b) = -\infty & (-\infty \leqslant a < \infty, b > 0) \\ | ||
| - | a / (\pm \infty) = 0 & (a \in \mathbb{R}) | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{11} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | *注:$\infty - \infty, \infty \cdot 0, a/0$ 无意义。* | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 4. 集合运算与确界 ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | **集合运算定义:** | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | A + B = \{a + b : a \in A, b \in B\} \\ | ||
| - | AB = \{ab : a \in A, b \in B\} \\ | ||
| - | -A = \{-a : a \in A\}, \quad A^{-1} = \{a^{-1} : a \in A\} (0 \notin A) | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{12} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | **确界运算性质:** | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | \sup(A + B) = \sup A + \sup B \\ | ||
| - | \inf(A + B) = \inf A + \inf B \\ | ||
| - | \sup(-A) = -\inf A | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{13} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | 若 $A, B \subset (0, \infty)$: | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | \sup AB = \sup A \sup B \\ | ||
| - | \inf AB = \inf A \inf B \\ | ||
| - | \sup A^{-1} = (\inf A)^{-1} & (\inf A \neq 0) | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{14} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | **函数确界不等式:** | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | \sup_{x \in X} [f(x) + g(x)] \leqslant \sup_{x \in X} f(x) + \sup_{x \in X} g(x) \\ | ||
| - | \inf_{x \in X} [f(x) + g(x)] \geqslant \inf_{x \in X} f(x) + \inf_{x \in X} g(x) | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{15} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | 若 $f, g \geqslant 0$: | ||
| - | $$ \sup_{x \in X} [f(x)g(x)] \leqslant \sup_{x \in X} f(x) \sup_{x \in X} g(x) \tag{16} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | ===== 2.3 初等函数 ===== | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 1. 基本初等函数 ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | * | ||
| - | |||
| - | $$ P(x) = \sum_{i=0}^{n} a_i x^i, \quad f(x) = P(x) / Q(x) \tag{17, 18} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | * | ||
| - | * 若 $\alpha = 1/ | ||
| - | $$ x^{1/n} = \sup \{\xi : \xi^n \leqslant x\} \quad (x > 0) \tag{19} $$ | ||
| - | * 若 $\alpha$ 为无理数: | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | x^\alpha = \begin{cases} | ||
| - | \sup \{x^r : r \in \mathbb{Q} \cap (0, \alpha)\} & (x \geqslant 1) \\ | ||
| - | [(x^{-1})^\alpha]^{-1} & (0 < x < 1) | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{20} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | * | ||
| - | * $a^x = \sup \{a^r : r \in \mathbb{Q}, r < x\}$ (当 $a> | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | |||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | $$ a^{\log_a x} = x \tag{24} $$ | ||
| - | $$ \log_b x = \log_b a \log_a x, \quad \log_a x^\alpha = \alpha \log_a x \tag{25} $$ | ||
| - | $$ x^\alpha = a^{\alpha \log_a x} \tag{27} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | * | ||
| - | * $\sin x$ 为周期 $2\pi$ 的奇函数。 | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | $$ \arccos x = \frac{\pi}{2} - \arcsin x \quad (|x| \leqslant 1) \tag{29} $$ | ||
| - | $$ \operatorname{arccot} x = \frac{\pi}{2} - \arctan x \quad (|x| < \infty) $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==== 2. 双曲函数 (Hyperbolic Functions) ==== | ||
| - | |||
| - | **定义:** | ||
| - | |||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | \operatorname{sh} x = \frac{e^x - e^{-x}}{2} \\ | ||
| - | \operatorname{ch} x = \frac{e^x + e^{-x}}{2} \\ | ||
| - | \operatorname{th} x = \frac{\operatorname{sh} x}{\operatorname{ch} x} \\ | ||
| - | \operatorname{coth} x = \frac{1}{\operatorname{th} x} \quad (x \neq 0) | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{30} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | **恒等式:** | ||
| - | |||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | \operatorname{sh}(x \pm y) = \operatorname{sh} x \operatorname{ch} y \pm \operatorname{ch} x \operatorname{sh} y \\ | ||
| - | \operatorname{ch}(x \pm y) = \operatorname{ch} x \operatorname{ch} y \pm \operatorname{sh} x \operatorname{sh} y | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{31} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | $$ \operatorname{ch}^2 x - \operatorname{sh}^2 x = 1 \tag{32} $$ | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | \begin{cases} | ||
| - | \operatorname{sh} 2x = 2 \operatorname{sh} x \\ | ||
| - | \operatorname{ch} 2x = 2 \operatorname{ch}^2 x - 1 = 2 \operatorname{sh}^2 x + 1 | ||
| - | \end{cases} \tag{33} | ||
| - | $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | **反双曲函数 (对数表达式):** | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | $$ \operatorname{arsh} x = \ln(x + \sqrt{x^2 + 1}) \quad (x \in \mathbb{R}) \tag{34a} $$ | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | |||
| - | $$ \operatorname{arch} x = \ln(x + \sqrt{x^2 - 1}) \quad (x \geqslant 1) \tag{34b} $$ | ||
| - | |||
| - | * | ||
| - | $$ \operatorname{arth} x = \frac{1}{2} \ln \frac{1+x}{1-x} \quad (|x| < 1) \tag{34c} $$ | ||
| - | * | ||
| - | $$ \operatorname{arcoth} x = \frac{1}{2} \ln \frac{x+1}{x-1} \quad (|x| > 1) \tag{34d} $$ | ||